Author: ericnordelo

This article wasn’t written by me, but I found it so good that I wanted to keep it on my blog for reference and to share it with people on my side. To check the original one click here. I got permission from the original author to publish it.

The Berlin hard fork introduced four new EIPs. Two of them (EIP-2929 and EIP-2930) affect how the gas cost of a transaction is computed. This article explains how (some) gas costs were calculated before Berlin, how this will change with EIP-2929, and how to use the Access Lists feature introduced by EIP-2930.

tl;dr

This is a long article, so you can just read this and close the tab:

• The Berlin hard fork changes the gas cost of some opcodes. If you have a hardcoded gas value in a dapp or a smart contract, they might stop working. And if this happens and the smart contract is non-upgradeable, consumers will need to employ access lists (EIP-2930) to use it.
• Access lists can be used to reduce gas costs a little, but they could actually increase the total gas consumed in some scenarios.
• geth includes a new RPC method called eth_createAccessList to simplify the creation of access lists.

Gas costs before Berlin

Each opcode executed by the EVM has an associated gas cost. For most of them, this cost is fixed: PUSH1 always consumes 3 units of gas, MUL consumes 5, and so on. For others it is variable: the SHA3 opcode’s cost depends on the size of its input, for example.

We’ll focus on the SLOAD and SSTORE opcodes since they are the ones most affected by the Berlin hard fork. We’ll talk later about those that target an address, like all the EXT* and CALL* opcodes, since their gas cost changes too.

SLOAD before Berlin

Without EIP-2929, the cost of SLOAD is simple: it always costs 800 of gas. So there isn’t much to say about it (for now).

SSTORE before Berlin

SSTORE is maybe the most complex opcode in terms of gas because its cost depends on things like the current value of the storage slot, the new value, and whether it was previously modified. We’ll analyze only some scenarios to get a basic understanding; if you want to learn more, read the EIPs linked at the end of this article.

• If the value of the slot changes from 0 to 1 (or any non-zero value), the cost is 20000
• If the value of the slot changes from 1 to 2 (or any other non-zero value), the cost is 5000.
• If the value of the slot changes from 1 (or any non-zero value) to 0, the cost is also 5000, but you get a gas refund at the end of the transaction. We won’t cover refunds in this article since they are not affected by Berlin.
• If the value was previously modified during the same transaction, all the subsequent SSTOREs cost 800.

The details are not that interesting here. The important part is that SSTORE is expensive and that its cost depends on several factors.

Gas costs after EIP-2929

EIP-2929 changes all these values. But before getting into that, we need to talk about an important concept introduced by the EIP: accessed addresses and accessed storage keys.

An address or a storage key is considered accessed if it was previously “used” during the transaction. For example, when you CALL another contract, the address of that contract is marked as accessed. Similarly, when you SLOAD or SSTORE some slot, it will be considered accessed for the rest of the transaction. It doesn’t matter which opcode did it: if an SLOAD reads a slot, it will be considered accessed for both the next SLOADs and the next SSTOREs.

Something important to notice here is that storage keys are “inside” some address. As the EIP explains it:

When executing a transaction, maintain a set accessed_addresses: Set[Address] and accessed_storage_keys: Set[Tuple[Address, Bytes32]]

That is, when we say that a storage slot is accessed, we are actually saying that a pair (address, storageKey) was accessed.

With that being said, let’s talk about the new gas costs.

SLOAD after Berlin

Before Berlin, SLOAD had a fixed cost of 800. Now, it depends on whether that storage slot was already accessed or not. If it wasn’t accessed, the cost is 2100; if it was, it is 100. So, an SLOAD costs 2000 less if the slot is in the list of accessed storage keys.

SSTORE after Berlin

Let’s revisit our previous SSTORE examples in the context of EIP-2929:

• If the value of the slot changes from 0 to 1 (or any non-zero value), the cost is:
  • 22100 if the storage key wasn’t accessed
  • 20000 if it was
• If the value of the slot changes from 1 to 2 (or any other non-zero value), the cost is:
  • 5000 if the storage key wasn’t accessed
  • 2900 if it was
• If the value of the slot changes from 1 (or any non-zero value) to 0, the cost is the same as the previous item, plus the refund.
• If the value was previously modified during the same transaction, all the subsequent SSTOREs cost 100.

As you can see, the first SSTORE costs 2100 less if the slot it’s modifying was previously accessed.

Putting it all together

That was a mouthful, so here’s a table comparing all the values mentioned so far:

OPCODE	Before Berlin	After Berlin
		Not accessed	Accessed
SLOAD	800	2100	100
SSTORE from 0 to 1	20000	22100	20000
SSTORE from 1 to 2	5000	5000	2900
SLOAD + SSTORE*	5800	5000	3000
SSTORE* + SLOAD	5800	5100	3000
SSTORE of an already written slot	800	100	100
*From a non-zero value to a different non-zero value, like in the third row

Notice that in the last row it doesn’t make sense to talk about the slot having been accessed or not because, if it was previously written, then it was also accessed.

EIP-2930: Optional Access List transactions

The other EIP we mentioned at the beginning was EIP-2930. This EIP adds a new type of transaction that can include an access list in the transaction payload. This means that you can declare beforehand which addresses and slots should be considered as accessed before the transaction’s execution starts. For example, an SLOAD of a non-accessed slot costs 2100, but if that slot was included in the transaction’s access list, then that same opcode will cost 100.

But if the gas costs are lower when an address or storage key is already accessed, does this mean that we can add everything to the transaction’s access list and get a gas reduction? Yay, free gas! Well, not exactly, because you also need to pay gas for each address and each storage key that you add.

Let’s see an example. Say we are sending a transaction to contract A. An access list could look like this:

accessList: [{
  address: "<address of A>",
  storageKeys: [
    "0x0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000"
  ]
}]

If we send a transaction with this access list, and the first opcode that uses the 0x0 slot is a SLOAD, it will cost 100 instead of 2100. That’s a gas reduction of 2000. But each storage key included in the transaction’s access list has a cost of 1900. So we only save 100 of gas. (If the first opcode to access that slot is an SSTORE instead, we would save 2100 of gas, which means that we’d save 200 of gas in total if we consider the cost of the storage key.)

Does this mean that we always save gas when using transaction’s with access lists? Well, no, because we also pay gas for the address in the access list ("<address of A>" in our example).

Accessed addresses

So far, we’ve been talking only about the SLOAD and SSTORE opcodes, but those aren’t the only ones that change after Berlin. For example, the CALL opcode had a fixed cost of 700. But after EIP-2929 its cost is 2600 if the address is not in the access list and 100 if it is. And, like the accessed storage keys, it doesn’t matter what OPCODE accessed that address before (for example, if an EXTCODESIZE was called first, then that opcode will cost 2600, and any subsequent EXTCODESIZE, CALL, STATICCALL that uses the same address will cost 100).

How is this affected by transactions with access lists? For example, if we send a transaction to contract A, and that contract calls another contract B, then we can include an access list like this:

accessList: [{ address: "<address of B>", storageKeys: [] }]

We’ll have to pay a cost of 2400 to include this access list in the transaction, but then the first opcode that uses the address of B will cost 100 instead of 2600. So we saved 100 of gas by doing this. And if B uses its storage somehow and we know which keys it will use, then we can also include them in the access list and save 100/200 of gas for each one (depending on whether the first opcode is an SLOAD or an SSTORE).

But why are we talking about another contract? What happens with the contract that we are calling? Why don’t we do this?

accessList: [
  {address: "<address of A>", storageKeys: []},
  {address: "<address of B>", storageKeys: []},
]

We could do it, but it wouldn’t be worth it because EIP-2929 specifies that the address of the contract that is being called (that is, tx.to) is always included in the accessed_addresses list. So we are paying 2400 more for nothing.

Let’s analyze our example of the previous section again:

accessList: [{
  address: "<address of A>",
  storageKeys: [
    "0x0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000"
  ]
}]

This will actually be wasteful unless we include several storage keys more. If we assume that a storage key is always used first by an SLOAD, then we need at least 24 storage keys just to break even.

As you can imagine, analyzing this and creating an access list by hand is not fun. Luckily, there is a better way.

The eth_createAccessList RPC method

Geth (starting from version 1.10.2) includes a new eth_createAccessList RPC method that you can use to generate access lists. It is used like eth_estimateGas, but instead of a gas estimation, it returns something like this:

{
  "accessList": [
    {
      "address": "0xb0ee076d7779a6ce152283f009f4c32b5f88756c",
      "storageKeys": [
        "0x0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000",
        "0x0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001"
      ]
    }
  ],
  "gasUsed": "0x8496"
}

That is, it gives you the list of addresses and storage keys that will be used by that transaction, plus the gas consumed if the access list is included. (And, like eth_estimateGas, this is an estimation; the list could change when the transaction is actually mined.) But, again, this doesn’t mean that this gas will be lower than the gas used if you just send the same transaction without an access list!

I suppose we’ll discover over time what’s the proper way of doing this, but my pseudo-code guess is this:

let gasEstimation = estimateGas(tx)
let { accessList, gasUsed } = createAccessList(tx)
if (gasUsed > gasEstimation) {
  delete accessList[tx.to]
}
tx.accessList = accessList;
sendTransaction(tx)

Unbricking contracts

It is important to mention that the main purpose of Access Lists is not to use gas. As the EIP explains it:

Mitigates contract breakage risks introduced by EIP-2929, as transactions could pre-specify and pre-pay for the accounts and storage slots that the transaction plans to access; as a result, in the actual execution, the SLOAD and EXT* opcodes would only cost 100 gas: low enough that it would not only prevent breakage due to that EIP but also “unstuck” any contracts that became stuck due to EIP 1884.

This means that if a contract makes assumptions about the cost of executing something, the increase in gas costs could break it. For example, a contract makes a call to another contract like someOtherContract.someFunction{gas: 34500}() because it assumes that someFunction will use exactly 34500 of gas, then it will break. But if you include the proper access list in the transaction, then the contract will work again.

Check it yourself

If you want to test this yourself, clone this repo which has several examples that can be executed using Hardhat and geth. Check the README for the instructions.

Was this fun?

If this low-level mumbo-jumbo is your idea of fun, you should know that Nomic Labs is hiring.

References

• EIP-2929 and EIP-2930 are the two Berlin EIPs relevant to this article.
• EIP-2930 depends on another part of Berlin: EIP-2718, also called Typed Transactions.
• EIP-2929 refers to EIP-2200 a lot, so if you want to understand gas costs more in depth, you should start there.
• For more complex examples comparing how gas usage changes, check this.